Association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring overweight in U.S.-born children

Background: The criticism of the literature on smoking during pregnancy and offspring overweight was the confounding from postnatal factors. Interaction between gestational age and prenatal maternal smoking has not yet assessed. Methods: We used the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1988-1994), linked with natality files of US-born singletons aged 2 to 6 years. A body mass index in the 85th percentile or higher were considered overweight, including obesity. Gestational age was dichotomized as preterm (<37 weeks, n = 240) or full-term (n = 2125). Smoking status during pregnancy was ascertained by a questionnaire-based interview during National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Results: The prevalence of offspring overweight and obesity combined was 17.3% (SE = 1.3%). And 24.0% (1.3%) of mothers smoked while pregnant. A significant interaction was observed between maternal smoking and gestational age. In preterm children, a higher prevalence of overweight (34.3% [6.7%]) was found among the offspring of smoking mothers compared to non-smoking mothers (15.8% [3.6%]). After adjustment for socio-demographics, prenatal and postnatal factors, in preterm born offspring, the odds ratio of being born to smoking mothers was 2.46 (95% confidence intervals: 1.13-5.37) among children with overweight/obesity compared to children with healthy weight born to non-smoking mothers. In full-term children, the OR of being born to smoking mothers was 0.72 (0.50-1.03) among offspring with overweight/obesity relative to offspring with healthy weight born to non-smoking mothers. Conclusions: Maternal smoking during pregnancy was strongly associated with offspring overweight and obesity in preterm births after control for postnatal factors. Preterm children of smoking mothers should be prioritized for obesity prevention.